Skincare Science · Photoprotection
Sunscreen for face: How to choose one (and why it actually matters)
Choose a broad-spectrum SPF 30 or higher formulated specifically for the face, pick a texture you will actually use daily, and reapply every two hours outdoors. UV exposure drives roughly 80% of visible facial aging,13 and daily SPF is the only cosmetic intervention with long-term randomized trial evidence behind it.1
The category is crowded, the labels are confusing, and the marketing around sunscreen does a lot of work that the actual product cannot. This guide cuts through the noise: what SPF numbers really mean, why broad spectrum is non-negotiable, how to read the difference between mineral and chemical filters, and how to pick a texture that matches your skin instead of fighting it. No brand recommendations, just the framework.
// What's in this guide
01Why SPF matters for the face specifically
Skin aging comes from two sources: intrinsic (genetic, hormonal, time) and extrinsic (UV, pollution, smoking, diet). The extrinsic category accounts for the majority of what you actually see in the mirror. A comprehensive exposome review concluded that UV radiation is responsible for approximately 80% of visible facial aging, including fine lines, loss of elasticity, uneven pigmentation, and texture changes.13 That number makes sunscreen the single highest-leverage intervention in any skincare routine, ahead of every serum, moisturizer, and active ingredient combined.
The mechanism is well-established. UVA radiation (wavelengths 315-400nm) penetrates deep into the dermis and activates matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), enzymes that break down collagen and elastin.12 UVB radiation (280-315nm) causes the visible sunburn response and drives DNA damage at the epidermal level.11 Both wavelengths suppress the skin's immune cell population (Langerhans cells) with repeated exposure, which contributes to the dull, thickened texture characteristic of chronically sun-exposed skin.14
Crucially: you do not need to burn to accumulate UV damage. A controlled study found that suberythemal doses (UV levels below what causes visible redness) still produced measurable DNA damage and oxidative markers in skin.10 Cloudy days, car windows, and office windows with UVA transmission all add to the cumulative load. This is the core reason daily SPF, even on unremarkable days, is not overcautious but accurate.
The clinical trial evidence is unusually strong for a cosmetic habit. A 4.5-year randomized controlled trial in Queensland, Australia (n=903) assigned adults to either daily broad-spectrum sunscreen or discretionary use. The daily-use group showed 24% less skin aging on micro-topography assessment at the end of the trial.1 A longer follow-up of a related Australian cohort found daily sunscreen use associated with a roughly 50% reduction in invasive melanoma incidence over 10 years.2 The behavioral pattern is more powerful than the SPF number you choose, which leads directly to the texture and formulation questions below.
UV drives about 80% of visible facial aging, and you accumulate it even without burning. A 4.5-year RCT showed daily SPF produced 24% less skin aging. This is the most evidence-backed intervention in skincare. The best SPF is the one that suits your skin well enough that you actually use it every day.
02SPF numbers: what they actually mean
SPF (Sun Protection Factor) measures how much UV radiation is required to cause a minimal erythemal dose (visible redness) on protected skin compared to unprotected skin, under controlled lab conditions with an application density of 2mg per square centimeter. That last detail matters, because real-world application is typically closer to 0.5 to 1mg/cm2, which meaningfully reduces effective protection.9
The relationship between SPF and UVB blockage is logarithmic, not linear. SPF 15 blocks approximately 93% of UVB. SPF 30 blocks about 97%. SPF 50 reaches approximately 98%, and SPF 100 approximately 99%.7 The gap between SPF 30 and SPF 50 sounds small as a percentage, but in terms of UV reaching the skin, SPF 50 allows roughly half the UV through compared to SPF 30. Under real-use conditions where people apply less than the tested amount, the higher buffer matters.
A split-face randomized controlled trial in 199 skiers compared SPF 100+ against SPF 50+ under real outdoor UV exposure. The SPF 100+ side showed significantly less sunburn, demonstrating that the label difference is clinically meaningful when application is imperfect, which is essentially always.6 A parallel study of solid organ transplant recipients (immunocompromised patients who applied sunscreen with supervision) found that typical underapplication effectively reduced an SPF 30 product to approximately SPF 10-15 in practice.9
The practical guidance that falls out of this: SPF 30 is the minimum for daily use. SPF 50 is a sensible everyday target for anyone spending meaningful time outdoors, using active ingredients that increase UV sensitivity (retinoids, AHAs), or who tends to apply lightly. Above SPF 50, the returns diminish. Notably, 91% of surveyed dermatologists personally use SPF 50+, and 78% recommend SPF 50+ to patients, despite the FDA guideline minimum being SPF 30.8 That gap reflects the expert understanding of real-world application reality.
SPF 30 blocks 97% of UVB; SPF 50 blocks 98%. The real-world gap is larger because most people underapply. SPF 50 is a reasonable daily target, especially with active ingredients that increase sensitivity. Above SPF 50, returns diminish fast. SPF number alone does not tell you anything about UVA coverage, which requires the broad spectrum label.
03Broad spectrum: the label that actually matters
SPF measures UVB protection only. A sunscreen can carry an SPF 50 label and block almost no UVA radiation at all, which would leave the primary driver of photoaging and collagen degradation entirely unaddressed. This is why the "broad spectrum" designation exists, and why it should be treated as a non-negotiable requirement for face sunscreen.
In the US, the FDA requires that a broad spectrum claim pass a critical wavelength test of at least 370nm, meaning adequate absorption across the UVA spectrum. The European Union uses a different metric (PPD ratio), and several Asian markets use the PA system (PA+, PA++, PA+++ etc.), which reflects UVA protection on a 1-to-4 scale. None of these systems measure exactly the same thing, so cross-market SPF/UVA comparisons are difficult.5 The simplest approach: in any market, look for the explicit "broad spectrum" claim on the label. If it is absent, the UVA coverage is unverified regardless of the SPF number.
Research confirms the clinical difference. A study on broad-spectrum versus UVB-only formulas found that UVA-inclusive sunscreens prevented UV-induced immunosuppression significantly better than UVB-only products.3 For those managing hyperpigmentation or melasma, an RCT found that tinted SPF containing iron oxide (which also blocks high-energy visible light, or HEV) significantly outperformed clear broad-spectrum SPF in reducing pigmentation, because HEV wavelengths can also drive melanocyte activity via Opsin-3 receptors in skin.15
On the UVA filter landscape: zinc oxide offers the broadest UVA1 coverage (340-380nm) of any single filter in common use.4 Avobenzone (butyl methoxydibenzoylmethane) covers UVA well on paper but is photounstable and degrades in sunlight unless paired with photostabilizers like octocrylene or Tinosorb.16 More modern filters available in Europe and Asia (bemotrizinol/Tinosorb S, bisoctrizole/Tinosorb M) offer better photostability and broad-spectrum coverage but are not yet FDA-approved for US market products.
SPF only measures UVB protection. Always choose broad spectrum to address UVA, which drives collagen degradation and deep photoaging. For hyperpigmentation or melasma, a tinted option with iron oxide adds protection against HEV visible light too. No broad spectrum label, no verified UVA coverage.
04Mineral vs chemical sunscreen filters
The mineral versus chemical distinction refers to the class of UV filter used, not the elegance of the formula. Both categories can be formulated well or poorly, and both have real trade-offs worth understanding before you pick one.
| Property | Mineral (inorganic) filters | Chemical (organic) filters |
|---|---|---|
| Active ingredients | Zinc oxide, titanium dioxide | Avobenzone, oxybenzone, octinoxate, tinosorb S/M, mexoryl SX/XL, and others |
| Mechanism | Physical scatter and absorption of UV at the skin surface | Absorb UV and convert it to heat energy; no reflection component |
| UVA coverage | Zinc oxide: excellent broad UVA1 coverage. Titanium dioxide: weaker UVA1 | Varies by filter. Avobenzone: good UVA, unstable without photostabilizers. Mexoryl SX: excellent UVA2. Tinosorb S/M: excellent broad spectrum |
| Texture and feel | Often leave a white cast, especially on deeper skin tones; can feel heavier; modern micronized formulas reduce cast | Typically invisible on skin; lighter feel; easier to layer under makeup |
| Photostability | Very stable; do not degrade with UV exposure | Varies: avobenzone degrades unless stabilized; tinosorb S/M highly photostable |
| Skin sensitivity | Zinc oxide: well-tolerated, often recommended for sensitive, reactive, and post-procedure skin17 | Some chemical filters (oxybenzone) may cause sensitivity reactions in a minority of users; newer filters generally better-tolerated |
| Reef/environmental notes | Generally considered lower environmental risk; zinc oxide preferred in marine-protected areas | Oxybenzone and octinoxate banned in some jurisdictions for reef impact; newer filters less scrutinized |
| Ideal for | Sensitive, acne-prone, reactive, post-procedure skin; those who prefer minimal systemic absorption concern | Daily urban use, makeup layering, oilier or darker skin where white cast is an issue |
The "mineral is safer" framing is a marketing simplification. The FDA's concern about chemical filter absorption through skin is real at the study level (some filters were detected in blood after application) but those studies used maximal application doses over multiple days, and no study has demonstrated harm from typical real-world use.18 The evidence that sunscreen, in any formulation, prevents UV damage is far stronger than the evidence for harm from any current-generation filter. Zinc oxide's safety in cosmetics has been comprehensively reviewed and confirmed across multiple independent assessments, including for nanoparticle formulations on intact skin.17
The most honest framing: choose the filter class that gives you a texture you will apply daily and reapply as needed. A well-applied chemical SPF 30 outperforms a begrudgingly applied mineral SPF 50 in real-world outcomes. Compliance is the single biggest driver of photoprotection in practice.19
05Texture: matching the formula to your skin type
The reason most people abandon face sunscreen is not that they do not understand UV science. It is that their SPF feels greasy, breaks them out, pills under makeup, or leaves a chalky cast. Formulation texture is arguably the most important practical decision you make when choosing a sunscreen for your face, because the best protection is the product you actually use consistently.
Oily and combination skin
Look for water-based or gel formulations labeled "non-comedogenic," "oil-free," or "matte finish." Silica-based formulas absorb excess sebum and keep a drier finish throughout the day. Chemical filters typically sit more comfortably on oily skin than thick mineral pastes. Avoid heavy emollients (shea butter, coconut oil) as top ingredients in the sunscreen formula, as these can increase breakouts in sebum-heavy zones. A lightweight lotion or gel that absorbs in under a minute is the right category.
Dry and dehydrated skin
A sunscreen with built-in humectants (hyaluronic acid, glycerin) or light emollients can double as a moisturizer step, reducing the total number of layers in a morning routine. Cream-texture SPFs tend to feel comfortable on dry skin and provide a better base for foundation or tinted products. Avoid alcohol-heavy "ultra-light" formulas, which may work for oily skin but can strip moisture from an already-dry barrier.
Sensitive and reactive skin
Mineral-first or mineral-only formulas (zinc oxide as the primary UV filter) are generally the first recommendation for reactive, rosacea-prone, or post-procedure skin. Zinc oxide's anti-inflammatory profile and its absence of common sensitizing agents make it well-tolerated even on compromised skin. Avoid fragrance, alcohol, and unnecessary botanical extracts in any sunscreen for reactive skin. If you are using active ingredients that affect barrier integrity (retinoids, AHAs, strong vitamin C), a fragrance-free mineral SPF is worth prioritizing.17
Deeper skin tones
White cast from mineral formulas is a real concern with traditional zinc oxide and titanium dioxide. Modern micronized mineral formulas reduce the cast meaningfully but do not always eliminate it on Fitzpatrick skin types IV-VI. A well-formulated chemical SPF, or a tinted mineral formula, is typically a better match aesthetically. The UVA protection question is still important: darker skin tones experience UVA-driven collagen degradation and hyperpigmentation even with higher baseline melanin, so broad-spectrum coverage matters regardless of your natural photoprotection baseline.20
Under makeup
Layering sunscreen under foundation requires a formula that dries to a non-tacky finish quickly. Look for a dry-touch or matte-finish designation. Applying SPF after moisturizer but before any color product, and allowing each layer to absorb for 60-90 seconds, prevents pilling. Tinted SPFs can replace both sunscreen and foundation for minimal-makeup routines, with the added benefit of iron oxide's HEV protection for pigmentation concerns.
The right texture is the one you will use every day without thinking about it. Oily skin does better with lightweight gels; dry skin suits cream formulas; sensitive skin favors fragrance-free mineral options; deeper skin tones often prefer chemical or tinted SPF to avoid white cast. No single formulation works for everyone.
06Reapplication: the rule most people skip
A morning application of sunscreen is not a full day of protection. UV filters degrade from photodegradation under sunlight and are removed from the skin surface by sweat and physical contact. A modeling study in the Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology demonstrated that SPF protection decays measurably after two hours of UV exposure, and that reapplication every two hours is critical to maintaining stated protection in practice.21
The behavioral data on reapplication is stark. A French observational study of 2,059 sunscreen users found that only 31% reapplied during outdoor activities, and average application amount was approximately 50% of the dose used to establish SPF ratings in lab testing.22 A cross-sectional survey found that the majority of respondents believed a single morning SPF application was sufficient for a full day outdoors.23 This behavioral gap is likely the primary reason that real-world photoprotection outcomes underperform the theoretical projections from SPF labels.
The reapplication rule is simple: every two hours of direct sun exposure, and immediately after swimming, heavy sweating, or toweling off. Indoors with incidental exposure (office windows, driving), a morning application is generally adequate, though UVA-transmitting glass is a real consideration for anyone sitting near windows for extended periods. A 2014 review documented that UVA penetrates glass and clouds, making indoor daily SPF relevant for desk workers.24
For reapplication over makeup, powder SPF products (mineral-based pressed powders, setting sprays labeled broad spectrum) are available for midday touch-ups. These do not provide the same coverage as a full lotion application but are meaningfully better than nothing for the midday window.
One morning application is not enough for a day outdoors. UV filters degrade and sweat removes them; reapply every two hours in the sun. Most people skip this step, which explains why real-world SPF performance falls well below label values. Indoors with glass exposure, a morning application generally covers it.
07Where sunscreen fits in a skincare routine
SPF goes last in a morning skincare routine, applied after all serums and moisturizers, as the final layer before any makeup. The logic is simple: sunscreen needs to sit on or just under the skin surface to work, and layering other products over it disrupts the uniform film needed for consistent protection.
Retinoids (retinol, tretinoin) increase UV sensitivity by accelerating cell turnover and reducing the stratum corneum's thickness as a side effect.25 If you use a retinoid, SPF is not optional: it is mandatory to prevent the increased UV susceptibility from becoming a net negative. The combination of retinoid plus daily SPF is consistently described as the standard-of-care approach for managing photoaged skin, because retinoids drive repair and SPF prevents new damage during that process.26
Vitamin C (L-ascorbic acid) and other antioxidants layer well under SPF in the morning and provide an additive layer of defense. Animal model studies showed topical vitamin C reduced UVB-induced erythema and sunburn cell formation, supporting its role as a photoprotective complement (not replacement) to sunscreen.27 Antioxidants help neutralize the reactive oxygen species that UV radiation generates even when UV filters absorb the initial energy. SPF handles direct UV damage; antioxidants help with the oxidative downstream cascade.
A note on building your full skincare routine: SPF does not interfere with the evening ingredients (peptides, retinoids, AHAs) you may be using on the other half of the day. The morning is for protection; the evening is for repair. They serve different functions and complement each other. See also the skin barrier repair guide for context on how UV damage accumulates against an already-compromised barrier, and our 30-day glow-up challenge for a structured approach to building these habits together.
A morning routine with SPF at its core might look like this: cleanser, any water-based serum (vitamin C, hyaluronic acid, a copper peptide serum), moisturizer if needed, then SPF as the final step. Every product that goes on before SPF has time to work; SPF stays at the surface where it belongs. MAXXING is working on a face sunscreen that fits this kind of routine, coming to the GlowMaxxing collection soon. In the meantime, the framework above works with any broad-spectrum SPF 30+ you trust.
SPF is the last step of a morning routine. Retinoid users have no choice: SPF is mandatory to counter the increased UV sensitivity. Vitamin C layers under SPF and adds antioxidant backup. Evening actives (retinoids, peptides) are unaffected by daytime SPF use. AM is protection; PM is repair.
08Frequently asked questions
SPF 30 is the widely accepted minimum for daily use: it blocks approximately 97% of UVB radiation under lab conditions. SPF 50 blocks about 98%, and SPF 100 about 99%.7 The real-world gap matters more than the label gap: most people apply roughly half the tested amount, which reduces effective SPF significantly. If you apply generously and reapply, SPF 30 is adequate. If you apply lightly or spend extended time outdoors, SPF 50 provides a meaningful safety margin. A split-face RCT in 199 skiers found SPF 100+ provided significantly better sunburn protection than SPF 50+ under real-use conditions.6
Broad spectrum means the sunscreen covers both UVB (primary sunburn wavelengths, 280-315nm) and UVA (longer wavelengths, 315-400nm). UVB causes visible burning; UVA penetrates deeper into the dermis and drives collagen degradation via MMP activation. In the US, a broad spectrum label requires a critical wavelength of at least 370nm under FDA testing. Always choose broad spectrum. A sunscreen with a high SPF number but no UVA coverage is blocking less than half the UV damage equation.
Neither is categorically better. Mineral sunscreens (zinc oxide, titanium dioxide) work on contact, leave a white cast on deeper skin tones, and are excellent for sensitive and reactive skin. Chemical sunscreens absorb UV and convert it to heat; they are invisible, lightweight, and easier to layer under makeup, but some filters (avobenzone) degrade in sunlight and need photostabilizers. Zinc oxide has the broadest UVA1 spectrum coverage of any single filter.4 The best sunscreen is one you will actually apply and reapply consistently, in a texture that works for your skin type.
Every two hours of sun exposure, or immediately after swimming or heavy sweating. UV radiation photodegrades filter molecules and sweat removes them from the skin surface, so a morning application does not protect you all day outdoors.21 A French observational study found only 31% of sunscreen users reapplied during outdoor activities.22 Reapplication matters more than the initial SPF number: a well-applied and reapplied SPF 30 outperforms a once-applied SPF 100 in practice.
Yes, with strong clinical evidence. A 4.5-year randomized controlled trial in Australia (n=903) found that daily broad-spectrum sunscreen users showed 24% less skin aging on micro-topography assessment compared to the discretionary-use group.1 UV exposure is estimated to account for roughly 80% of visible facial aging, and UVA supports collagen degradation via MMP activation with daily cumulative exposure. Sunscreen is the only topical intervention with this level of RCT evidence for aging prevention.
Under real-world conditions, probably not significantly. A systematic review found no study demonstrating vitamin D deficiency in sunscreen-using populations compared to non-users.28 A 2019 RCT in Tenerife (n=40, very high UV index) found participants using SPF 15 correctly still synthesized sufficient vitamin D.29 In practice, no one applies sunscreen to every exposed surface, and incidental daily exposure to hands, forearms, and neck provides meaningful synthesis. If you have a specific concern, a clinician can assess your actual vitamin D status directly.
Technically yes, though most body sunscreens are formulated for thicker, less reactive skin: they tend to be heavier, greasier, and more likely to feel uncomfortable on the face. The face has more sebaceous glands, thinner skin in certain areas, and more complex surface topography where thick formulas sit awkwardly. A face-specific formulation is typically lighter and tested for facial skin. If all you have is a body sunscreen, it is far better than no SPF at all, but a dedicated facial formula is worth establishing once your routine is settled.
Yes. Natural melanin offers meaningful UVB protection (estimated SPF equivalent of 2-4 in deeper skin tones), but it does not fully block UVA, and UVA is the primary driver of collagen degradation and hyperpigmentation disorders like melasma. An RCT found tinted SPF with iron oxide significantly outperformed untinted SPF in managing hyperpigmentation, because it also blocked HEV visible light that activates melanocyte pigmentation pathways.15 Photoaging and pigmentation irregularities accumulate in all skin tones; the clinical presentation and timeline differ, but the UV mechanism does not.20
Start with three criteria: SPF 30 or higher, broad spectrum (UVA plus UVB coverage), and a texture you will actually wear daily. From there, match the formula to your skin type: lightweight fluid or gel for oily skin, a richer lotion or cream for dry skin. If you have sensitive skin, mineral filters (zinc oxide, titanium dioxide) tend to be better tolerated. The best sunscreen is the one you apply every morning without skipping.
SPF 30 meets the minimum standard, but SPF 50 is the more common recommendation when using tretinoin. Tretinoin increases cell turnover and supports skin renewal, which can leave skin more sensitive to UV exposure, particularly in the early weeks of use. A broad spectrum SPF 50 applied generously every morning provides a useful extra buffer. If you experience significant sensitivity or redness, speak with a dermatologist or prescribing clinician for guidance specific to your routine.
References
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- Green AC, Williams GM, Logan V, Strutton GM. "Reduced melanoma after regular sunscreen use: Randomized trial follow-up." Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2011;29(3):257-263. doi:10.1200/JCO.2010.28.7078
- Elmets CA, Cala CM, Xu H. "Broad-spectrum sunscreens provide better protection from solar ultraviolet-simulated radiation and natural sunlight-induced immunosuppression." Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 2008;58(5):S149-S154. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2007.04.035
- Pinnell SR, Fairhurst D, Gillies R, Mitchnick MA, Kollias N. "Microfine zinc oxide is a superior sunscreen ingredient to microfine titanium dioxide." Dermatologic Surgery. 2000;26(4):309-314. doi:10.1046/j.1524-4725.2000.99237.x
- Wang SQ, Tooley IR. "Ex vivo assessments of UVA protection standardization." Expert Review of Dermatology. 2011;6(5):555-564. doi:10.1586/edm.11.65
- Ou-Yang H, Jiang LI, Meyer K, Wang SQ, Farberg AS, Rigel DS. "SPF 100+ sunscreen is more protective against sunburn than SPF 50+ in actual use." Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 2018;78(5):902-910. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2017.12.038
- Levy SB. "Sun protection factor: Meaning and controversies." Anais Brasileiros de Dermatologia. 2011;86(3):507-515. doi:10.1590/S0365-05962011000300013
- Seidenberg AB, Mahalingam-Dhingra A, Linos E, Balk SJ, Gottlieb AB. "Dermatologists' perceptions, recommendations, and use of sunscreen." JAMA Dermatology. 2017;153(1):99-101. doi:10.1001/jamadermatol.2016.3714
- Robinson JK, Rigel DS. "Sun protection attitudes and behaviors of solid-organ transplant recipients." Dermatologic Surgery. 2004;30(4 Pt 2):610-615. doi:10.1111/j.1524-4725.2004.30162.x
- Young AR, Chadwick CA, Harrison GI, et al. "Photodamage to human skin by suberythemal exposure to solar ultraviolet radiation using a photosimulator." British Journal of Dermatology. 2010;163(5):1064-1073. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2133.2010.09987.x
- Rabe JH, Mamelak AJ, McElgunn PJ, Morison WL, Sauder DN. "Photoaging: Mechanisms and repair." Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 2006;55(1):1-19. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2005.05.010
- Fisher GJ, Kang S, Varani J, et al. "Mechanisms of photoaging and chronological skin aging." Archives of Dermatology. 2002;138(11):1462-1470. doi:10.1001/archderm.138.11.1462
- Flament F, Bazin R, Laquieze S, et al. "Effect of the sun on visible clinical signs of aging in Caucasian skin." Clinical, Cosmetic and Investigational Dermatology. 2013;6:221-232. (UV contribution to visible aging, ~80% estimate); see also: Sjerobabski-Masnec I, Situm M. "Skin aging." Acta Clinica Croatica. 2010;49(4):515-518. PubMed
- Matsumura Y, Ananthaswamy HN. "Ultraviolet light induced injury: Immunological and inflammatory effects." Immunology and Cell Biology. 2001;79(5):429-436. doi:10.1093/intimm/13.10.1421
- Castanedo-Cazares JP, Hernandez-Blanco D, Carlos-Ortega B, Fuentes-Ahumada C, Torres-Alvarez B. "Near-visible light and UV photoprotection in the treatment of melasma: A double-blind randomized trial." Photodermatology, Photoimmunology and Photomedicine. 2014;30(1):35-42. doi:10.1111/phpp.12073
- Shaath NA. "New advances in protection against solar ultraviolet radiation in dermatological phototherapy." Actas Dermo-Sifiliograficas. 2014;105(3):212-222. doi:10.1016/j.ad.2013.11.003
- Nohynek GJ, Dufour EK. "Safety assessment of zinc oxide as used in cosmetics." International Journal of Toxicology. 2013;32(5 Suppl):5S-17S. doi:10.1177/1091581813492040
- Wang J, Pan L, Wu S, et al. "Current sunscreen controversies: A critical review." Photodermatology, Photoimmunology and Photomedicine. 2011;27(2):58-67. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0781.2011.00557.x
- Stengel FM, Fernandez-Bussy RA. "Compliance and sunscreens." Dermatologic Clinics. 2006;24(1):101-107. doi:10.1016/j.det.2010.09.003
- Hexsel CL, Bangert SD, Hebert AA, Lim HW. "Photoprotection according to skin phototype and dermatoses." Dermatology and Therapy. 2019;9(1):47-62. doi:10.1007/s13555-018-0279-2
- Diffey BL. "When should sunscreen be reapplied?" Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 2001;45(6):882-885. doi:10.1067/mjd.2001.117791
- Autier P, Dore JF. "Unsatisfied needs in photoprotection: Follow-up study of daily sun exposure behavior." British Journal of Dermatology. 2005;153(2):455-457. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2133.2005.06372.x
- Lim HW, James WD, Rigel DS, et al. "Sunscreen misconceptions and reapplication behaviors in men: A cross-sectional survey." Journal of the Dermatology Nurses' Association. 2019;11(3):139-144. doi:10.1097/JDN.0000000000000455
- Krutmann J, Schikowski T, Morita A, Berneburg M. "New insights in photoaging, UVA induced damage and skin types." Experimental Dermatology. 2014;23(7):479-484. doi:10.1111/exd.12388
- Griffiths CE. "Retinoids in the treatment of skin aging: An overview of clinical efficacy and safety." Clinical Interventions in Aging. 2006;1(4):327-348. doi:10.2147/ciia.2006.1.4.327
- Kligman LH. "Photoaging and topical tretinoin: Therapy, pathogenesis, and prevention." Archives of Dermatology. 2001;137(10):1378-1379. doi:10.1001/archderm.137.10.1378
- Darr D, Combs S, Dunston S, Manning T, Pinnell SR. "Topical vitamin C protects porcine skin from ultraviolet radiation-induced damage." British Journal of Dermatology. 1992;127(3):247-253. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2133.1992.tb00122.x
- Norval M, Wulf HC. "Does chronic sunscreen use reduce vitamin D production to insufficient levels?" British Journal of Dermatology. 2009;161(4):732-736. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2133.2009.09332.x
- Young AR, Morgan KA, Harrison GI, et al. "Optimal sunscreen use, during a sun holiday with a very high ultraviolet index, allows vitamin D synthesis without sunburn." British Journal of Dermatology. 2019;181(5):1052-1062. doi:10.1111/bjd.17888
